Write in APA format, a brief summary of 5 well known theories of Essay

Write in APA format, a brief summary of 5 well known theories of psychology(namely behavioural, cognitive, developmental, humanistic and personality) and give o - Essay Example He stated that it is not something that has to be repeated many times, but instead, if the behaviour that you want is clearly communicated, an individual will react to a familiar stimulus ("B.F. Skinner", 2008, p.1). Skinner called his theory "operant conditioning." He used a system of positive and negative enforcers to help strengthen or eliminate behaviours. The use of behavioural modification means that an individual may "change the consequences of behaviour in order to guide it to what is required. Skinner saw that although there would be a large task that was to be completed, it would be a better idea to break these larger steps down into small ones. This way a child could concentrate on one step at a time and be rewarded for the accomplishment of each task ("The 1950s, n.d.). In the view of the behaviourists, the way to motivate a child to learn is to reinforce the behaviour you want and ignore the behaviour you do not want. As an example, you have a child who does not want to clean their room. A chart can be set up and each time a child cleans their room, they receive a positive sticker (maybe a smiling face) on the chart. When they do not, they receive a negative sticker (maybe a frowning face). In order to go to McDonalds or get a special treat, they must have an accumulation of positive stickers. This can motivate a child to clean their room. Eventually, this will be made into a habit of course and you can gradually discontinue the stickers (according to his theory). The cognitive theorists were focused on finding out how people learned through understanding material in their environment. One of the foremost theorists in this area was Jean Piaget. He believed that children do not necessarily learn in a smooth way but in a series of stages of cognitive development. His stages include: Although many children follow this approach, many may find that they start the stages earlier than Piaget said. Other theorists like Vygotsky found that there were

Case of United States vs. Microsoft Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Case of United States vs. Microsoft - Essay Example The second defense presented by Microsoft was that it was just competing hard against Netscape, and that such competition was welfare-enhancing, and that it did not commit any anti-competitive acts. The third defense given by Microsoft was that it did not have monopoly power in the operating systems market. The fourth defense presented by Microsoft was that competition in the software sector was intense and that its leadership position could be replaced at any time by a new competitor or entrant. Microsoft further argued in its fifth defense, that it is a leader in software innovation and as such intensified and not restrained the innovation process. Lastly, Microsoft reasoned that consumers have benefited from its low pricing of the operating system, the zero pricing of its Internet browser and from its enhancement and acceleration of the innovation process, rather than been harmed by them. Microsoft also argued that consumers benefit from the de facto standardization that its large market share brought to the operating systems market (Economides, 2011). Moreover, Microsoft contended that an anti-trust action against them will dampen incentives for competition and slowdown software innovation. On April 3, 2000, in a two-part decision, Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson ruled in Washington, D.C. that Microsoft's dominance of the personal computer operating systems market constituted a monopoly, and that it used its power against competitors in ways that stifled innovation and harmed consumers. Judge Jackson ordered the breakup of Microsoft into two separate units, one to produce the operating system, and one to produce other software components. This ruling however was overturned by the Court of Appeals on June 28, 2001, acting on the appeal of Microsoft. I think that the DOJ, perceived Microsoft as a bully who would eat their competitors or anybody for that matter, who will be a threat to their market leadership. Microsoft was viewed as a company who would halt inn ovations if it threatened its Windows monopoly. I view the DOJ’s accusations as trying to control the market process and at the same time belittling the ability of the market to correct itself. In my view, the antitrust case against Microsoft is an attempt by the government to control the industry which might eventually have an adverse effect on future technological advancements in the field. I do not think that it is fair for the DOJ to dictate or interfere what should go to the Windows operating system. Microsoft has every right to offer the web browser for free if it does so to gain dominance in the market and government cannot take that away from them. It is clearly a marketing move on their part. From the defense presented by Microsoft, I can see that the point they are driving at is that they are not a monopoly but rather a market leader. Their claim that their

Genetics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Genetics - Essay Example This type of Down’s syndrome usually occurs in mothers who are less than 30 years of age. The Robertsonian translocation that leads to Down syndrome occurs between chromosomes 21 and 14. During meiosis, three possible pairing configurations can be observed between the 14 and 21 translocate chromosome and normal homolog (Crow and William 111). Think about how there pairings might occur and draw all possible pairing arrangements. You should draw your pairing arrangements with respect to the equator of the cell at metaphas This is because it helps us to determine whether genes are on the same or separate chromosomes. By calculating the frequency of crossing over, we obtain a measure of the map distance between the gene pairs (Crow and William 127). One genetic map unit (mu) is the distance between gene pairs for which one product of meiosis out of a hundred (100) is recombinant. 14. Perform a crossover between homologues 2 and 3 at the point indicated in the diagram below. If a second crossover occurs in the same region between the 2 genes, tell which chromatids would be involved to produce the following outcomes 15. Using the homologous chromosomes below, assume that a paracentric inversion occurs that involves genes B and C such that genes B and C are now inverted. The inversion occurs on only one homologue. During meiotic pairing of the inverted chromosome with the normal chromosome, a chiasma forms between B-C and crossing over

Making Movies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Making Movies - Research Paper Example Such an approach to language teaching and learning also provides optimum opportunities and avenues for consideration of Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory allowing for involvement and successful learning for all intelligences and learner types. There are a number of theories in relation to motivation but generally motivation is considered as intrinsic (learning for self) or extrinsic (learning for reward) (Atherton, 2010); among the many theories we find Maslow’s (1943) hierarchical theory, which purports five levels of motivation in terms of needs: physiological, security /safety, social, esteem and self-actualization. McClelland developed a system involving three types of motivational needs: power, affiliation and achievement (Christie, Jordan, Troth & Lawrence, 2007). Making movies provides stimulus for all motivational needs; it provides for extrinsic motivation by rewards pertaining to the final outcomes and assessment, together with peer and teacher praise. Intrinsic motivation is fueled by allowing students to be self-authored by writing their own scripts, which they then rehearse, edit and endorse; such activities provide more excitement and interest in learning and help promote confidence in students. Intrinsic motivation, inherent to self-determination theory, is influenced by three mental and emotional needs: competence, autonomy and relatedness (Alm, 2006). Movie making classes such as those described above increase competence by providing optimal challenges and effective peer and teacher feedback – both negative and positive – as well as praise. Autonomy is fostered because every student has choices and opportunities for self direction, thus feeding their need for internal control and the freedom to ascertain their own conduct. In terms of relatedness, movie making provides a feeling of security and cooperation among the group and the sense of each caring what the other says,

International trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

International trade - Essay Example It will then look and how tariffs, quotas and subsidies affect real income in small countries. Lastly, it will look at arguments against free trade and their validity from a national perspective. The Ricardian Model of International Trade The Ricardian model of international trade is one of the earliest models of international trade. This model of trade emphasizes comparative advantage that comes about due to technological differences which act as a critical factor behind trading activities. Unlike the other theories of international trade that argue that trade only benefits certain countries and is unfavorable to others, this model contradicts this notion arguing that trade is beneficial for all countries that take part in the international trade (Feenstra, 2003). Its built on six basic assumptions: (1) Two countries are involved in the trade; (2) there are only two goods produced; (3) labor is the sole factor of production (Goodwin, Nelson, Harris, Roach, & Devine, 2009); (4) there is perfect competition across all markets such that goods are priced at cost in the nations producing them; (5) an assumption that labor is homogeneous within domestic boundaries, however, its productivity is different across the nations; and (6) the goods produced are viewed as homogeneous across the countries (Stern, 2011). According to this model of trade, gains from the trade become possible because of the comparative advantage. The basic idea is that if a country has to benefit from the trade, it is the country’s opportunity cost that matters and not its actual costs. The opportunity cost of a given product (a) is how much of some other product, (b); one country has to give up in order to produce one unit of the other product (a) (Carbaugh, 2010). Based on this explanation therefore, each country will stand to benefit only if it produces a particular good for which it has the lowest opportunity cost. A country’s opportunity cost is what will create gain in the fr ee trade. The gains from the trade are made possible due to comparative advantage that one country has over the other. Comparative advantage comes in if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of others goods is less compared to the other country. Thus if the opportunity cost of country A is lower than the opportunity cost of country B, then country A has a comparative advantage over country B. Therefore both countries benefit from the free trade if each country exports the goods with which it has a comparative advantage over the other. The Heckscher-Ohlin (H-O) Model of Trade Heckscher and Ohlin in there theory explain that the basis for international trade is due to factor endowments. This theory is an advancement of the Ricardian model of international trade that advocated for the comparative advantage as the basis for international trade. The Ricardian model failed to explain how the comparative cost advantage exists (Goodwin, Nelson, Harris, Roach, & Devine, 2009). This theory on the other hand proposes that this difference in comparative costs is due to: (1) differences in endowment of the factors of production; (2) the fact that production is dependent on the factors of production which are used with different degrees of intensity in the two countries. Therefore, this theory advances that the differences in factor intensities in the production functions of goods and the actual differences in relative factor endowments of the countries which explain international differences in the

There is no set topic Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

There is no set topic - Research Paper Example The poem has four stanzas, each of eight lines, which follow a rhyming scheme of abababcd. There are many imageries employed in the poem as the poet compares his old being with â€Å"a paltry thing† and â€Å"A tattered coat upon a stick†. According to the poet, he is an old creature who has no value and is like a torn coat hanging on a stick. His existence is all ragged because of the long time that he has passed in this world but Byzantium is full of youth and inspires him with its youthfulness. He further elaborates his situation and says, According to Yeats, his soul is â€Å"fastened to a dying animal† and that is his body. He describes that he is old and his body is no more young, however, his soul is youthful and is â€Å"sick with desire†. According to Rukhaya (2010), â€Å"It now seems like an alien to himself incompatible with his aged body†. His body is alien to him, as he wants to get rid of it because of his youthful soul. Yeats shows infatuation with the idea of gold and gold creations as he mentions gold a number of times in the poem as he uses the words, â€Å"gold mosaic†, â€Å"hammered gold†, â€Å"gold enamelling† and â€Å"golden bough†. Yeats uses a number of symbols in â€Å"Sailing to Byzantium† such as â€Å"Byzantium† (Holy City), â€Å"dying animal† (old man), â€Å"mortal dress† (human body) and gold made bird by â€Å"Grecian goldsmiths. Franke (1998) says, â€Å"One of the most powerful and richly poetic of all Yeats’ unifying symbols is the Sacred City of Byzantium† (25).Byzantium that is used as a holy land by Yeats is itself a poetic symbol employed by him. The word, â€Å"Byzantium† stands for ancient art and what is manmade. Yeats shows inspiration for Byzantium because of its association with Greek world and artistic vigor found in the land. Byzantium is depicted as an eternal land. The poem Sailing to Byzantium by W.B. Yeats,

Discuss evolutionary explanations of intelligence Essay Example for Free

Discuss evolutionary explanations of intelligence Essay Intelligence has been considered a unique feature of human beings as it gives us the ability to devise elaborate strategies for solving problems. There are three key evolutionary explanations of intelligence, which are, foraging/ecological, social and sexual selection.  Foraging is when animals learn food preferences from others. This ability has clear survival advantages because the animal can learn from others rather than using trial and error process to identify which foods are harmful. The larger the range of food required, the larger the foraging area must be and the greater the requirement for more complex abilities. Many primates have to balance their diet by selective eating through successful hunting, which requires forethought, planning, cunning and the ability to coordinate the actions of a number of individuals. Finding food over a particular area may require a cognitive map (memorized spatial knowledge).Obtaining the food requires tool use and hunting techniques, which is another indication of intelligence in both human and non-human species. Visalberghi and Trinca (1987) did a study to look at the effects of tool use. Capuchin monkeys were given task of pushing peanut butter out of a tube. They found that the monkeys were quick at finding a suitable stick but tried out many unsuitable ones first. This suggests no understanding of causal relationships and that many animals develop the skill through trial and error rather than insight. Only the great apes show the sophisticated understanding of cause and effect so this supports the link between tool use and intelligence. The association between the growth of hunting and intelligence shows that more intelligent individuals are more intelligent than less intelligent. However many species with very successful hunting techniques are not very intelligent and therefore it is unlikely that the benefits of hunting would account for human levels of intelligence. The efficiency in foraging of a particular animal has been shown by various psychologists. Galef (1988) did a study in which a rat was allowed to eat food with a distinctive flavour, with cocoa or cinnamon. A test rat was then put in with the demonstrator for 30 minutes, but with no food present. This test rat then had to choose between cocoa-flavoured and cinnamon-flavoured food. It was found that the test rats preferred food of the same flavour as that eaten by the demonstrator. This was still the case 4 hours after the demonstrator had eaten and when 12 hours had elapsed before the test rat made its choice. Therefore it can be concluded that interacting with a rat after it has eaten creates a particular preference for that food. These results could be interpreted in a number of ways, in terms of the rats been neophobic, meaning unwilling to try anything new. The test rat could have picked up on the smell of the particular food on the breath of the demonstrator and will have been choosing between what was familiar and unfamiliar rather than been influenced directly by the demonstrator actually eating the food. However despite this Galef also found similar results even when the test rats were familiar with both cocoa and cinnamon flavoured food. The social theory says that interactions with other members of a social group present an intellectual challenge and primate intelligence has been evolved in response to this challenge. It has been suggested that intelligence is an evolutionary adaptation for solving social problems. The most intelligent species are the social animals, which are bees, parrots, dolphins, elephants, wolves, monkeys, etc. The group living could have set the stage for the evolution of intelligence in two ways; sociality which increases the value of having better information, because information is one commodity that that can be given away and kept at the same time. For example a more intelligent animal within a group has the benefit of knowledge and what it can get in exchange for the knowledge. Secondly group living itself has new cognitive challenges. Social animals send and receive signals to coordinate predation, defence, and foraging and sexual behaviour. They exchange favours, repay and enforce debts, punish cheaters and join coalitions. Machiavellian Intelligence Hypothesis came from various related hypotheses, which Bryne and Whiten (1988) brought together. This suggests that deceiving and detecting deception are the primary reason for the evolution of intelligence. Evidence supports this, as Bryne and Whiten (1992) have shown that there is a strong positive correlation between neocortex ratio and the prevalence of tactical deception in various primates and this implies that there is a clear relationship between social manipulation and intelligence.